Psychology Terms Definitions

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Latest Definitions

  • Homogeneity

    The degree to which a ‘being’ is same or consists of the same thing.

    There are various ways of understanding homogeneity in psychology; through cultural, trait-wise, statistical or research-based lens.

    Homogenous sampling: Gathering a group of research participants that share various similar traits.

    The extent to which different ethnic or demographic based groups share similar characteristics with regards to traits, traditions, lifestyle and practices.

    Homogeneity of Variance: The phenomenon of samples having the same variation along various scores of a dimension or characteristic.

  • Behavior

    Behavior can be understood as the coordinated activity of a living organism, expressed in actions or responses that are observable in relation to internal states and environmental conditions.

    What the literature says

    In psychology, biology, and philosophy, the term “behavior” has been defined in a variety of ways. Each definition in the literature emphasizes a distinct aspect of the actions of living things. Uher (2016) defined behavior as exterior changes or actions of organisms functionally mediated by current environmental circumstances. Ossorio (1995) highlighted that behavior differs from the acts of machines or objects in that it represents the activity of living things

    Levitis et al. (2009) noted that behavior includes internally coordinated reactions of whole organisms to internal or external stimuli except for solely developmental changes.

    Tinbergen (1951) captured the simply defining behavior as “the total of movements made by the intact animal,” whereas later scholars broadened this to “anything an organism does” (Davis, 1966; Lehner, 1996). Others, such as Jessor (1958) and Maturana (1995), stressed the relational nature of behavior, viewing it as an ongoing interaction between the organism and its environment. Finally, Dretske (1988) emphasized the role of inner processes in producing external actions.

    References

    Davis, D. E. (1966). Integral animal behavior. New York, NY: Macmillan.

    Dretske, F. (1988). Explaining behavior: Reasons in a world of causes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Jessor, R. (1958). The problem of reductionism in psychology. Psychological Review, 65, 170-178.

    Lehner, P. N. (1996). Handbook of ethological methods (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Levitis, D. A., Lidicker Jr, W. Z., & Freund, G. (2009). Behavioural biologists do not agree on what constitutes behaviour. Animal behaviour, 78(1), 103-110.

    Maturana, H. R. (1995). Biology of self-consciousness. In G. Tratteur (Ed.). Consciousness: Distinction and reflection (pp. 145-175). Naples: Bibliopolis.

    Ossorio, P. G. (1995). The Collected Works of Peter G. Ossorio. Descriptive Psychology Press.

    Tinbergen, N. (1951). The study of instinct. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Uher, J. (2016). What is behaviour? And (when) is language behaviour? A metatheoretical definition. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 46(4), 475-501.

  • Conformity

    Psychology defines conformity as the adjustment of one’s behavior, belief, or attitude to that of a group owing to real or perceived social pressure. Psychologists have posited that the impact of social rules on individual self-determination is very significant which is why conformity is so crucial in the analysis of social behavior.

    There are several types of conformity such as an explicit one which involves the adoption of behavior as a result of being given instructions by a group, and an implicit one where acceptance of instructions is not necessary and the individual alters behavior in an automatic manner in order to be in agreement. It is as an example the case of a person who is told to keep quiet when the teacher is talking and who forgets and starts laughing, or who complies with peer pressure to follow a certain mode of dressing. In studies done in the past, the phenomenon of conformity is examined in detail.

    Solomon Asch, in the 1950s, proved how individuals conformed to the perceptions of the group, irrespective of how invalid the members of the group may have been. Like in many other situations, there exists a positive and a negative side to conformity. In this context, the positive outcomes serve as the social order, cooperation, and a sense of belonging, while the negative effects are the loss of individuality and the encouragement of negative behaviors.

    In social psychology, a distinction is made between normative conformity, where social approval is the main driving factor, and informational conformity, where individuals are relied on in situations of confusion. In the modern day, the phenomenon of social influence is studied in the context of educational institutions, offices, and the internet, and the ways in which it guides social thoughts and behaviors.

  • Mnemonic

    In psychology, “mnemonic” refers to mechanisms that facilitate the encoding, storage, and retrieving of necessary pieces of information.  This works by attaching novel information to recognizable structures, stimuli, or links, thus enabling the brain to recollect information more readily.  

    They help a lot in the retention of information in bulk, such as lists of vocabulary or figures, or sequences. It is the technique where learners use acronyms which is the case with the word HOMES used for the Great Lakes with the letters H, O, M, E, and S in the primary place being for Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior, respectively.  Another is the use of poems or remediation such as repetitive saying of a long withdrawn phone number in smaller portions, or chunks. The ease of use of mnemonics is a manifestation of the way the brain organizes information file and levels. 

    It has been proven that the use of such strategies as images, links, or categorized files and images strengthen the synapses on the neurons and the encoding and recollection of the information is made more streamlined.  One of the oldest mnemonic strategies is the method of loci which involves people “placing” objects within mental maps of a familiar route, walking the route in their “mind’s eye” later to retrieve the objects.  In addition to education, mnemonics have been adopted in clinical fields to help people with memory disorders, like dementia and traumatic brain injury.  

  • Identification

    In psychology, identification is the unconscious ability of an individual to accept the values, behaviors, or attitudes of other persons or groups. It is also considered a way of forming a unique self, particularly in childhood and adolescence, when learners seek advice from parents, peers, or other models.

    For instance, a child has the habit of imitating a parent. In doing so, the child learns to internalize some of the parent’s mannerisms, personality traits, and patterns of speech. Still, identification is not restricted to childhood; in adulthood, a person is likely to identify with a mentor, a cultural icon, or a community to enhance their self-image and sense of sociability. Freud hypothesized the mechanism in personality development that identification with a particular figure is the key focus in explaining an Oedipus complex. With time, the focus has shifted to analyzing how an individual relates to other people, performs a social role, and develops social values.

    There is evidence that identification has negative and positive consequences. It is positive, for instance, when a person identifies with role models who nurture self-confidence, resilience, and prosocial behaviors. Identification is detrimental when the role models a person identifies with are negative or unhealthy, reinforcing maladaptive behavior or patterns. Identification, thus, illustrates the social and relational context that lends personal behavior and identity to a self.

  • Temprament

    In psychology, temperaments are described as the biological, emotional patterns, and the self-reactions associated with them, which require an early on appearance, and guide how individuals engage with their surroundings.

    It is an integral element of personality, and, thus, also exerts a considerable influence on behavior, social relations, and emotional advancement. One of the distinctions worth noting is how some infants are more adaptable than others and are able to remain calm and still, while others become more sensitive and distressed. Of course, these distinctions could not be attributed to parenting alone, and must be the result of genetic and biological parenting which, the parenting, the environment, and time.

    Research conducted by Thomas and Chess has advanced the foundations about the activity levels, moods, and attention spans associated with the physical and emotional dimensions of temperaments. Contemporary researchers also stress traits such as emotional intensity, sociability, and control. The effects of temperament are wide-ranging, and are noted in the learning, friendships, relationships, and the level of stress or emotional disorders. For instance, a child with stronger emotional levels is more prone to develop anxiety disorders, however, in the presence of nurturing and protective caregivers, the child will create resilience. As noted above, the innate traits, and environment, all characterize and reduce the behavior patterns of an individual, and how these patterns influence the development of the individual’s personality.

  • Heredity

    In psychology, heredity pertains to the biological process by which parents transfer biological characteristics to their children. It remains pivotal in the development of particular physical attributes, temperament, intellectual abilities, and even predispositions to certain behaviors or mental health issues. Heredity is carried through genes, which are an array of DNA segments that provide the ‘blueprint’ for development and functioning. For instance, a child may inherit the color of eyes or height from their parents, but they may also inherit a genetic susceptibility to mental disorders, such as depression, or even more serious disorders like schizophrenia.  Psychologists seek to understand the equilibrium that exists between nature, or genetics, and nurture, or the environment, by studying heredity. Studies of twins and of adoption track, illuminate the ways in which a person can be shaped by their biological traits and their environment, as well as the genetic and intellectual factors. Heredity is not a solitary process, but rather, genes are inextricably intertwined with the environment in a multitude of ways. Someone may be predisposed to anxiety in a genetic sense, but it may not be developed, depending on the level of stress, parenting, or the social climate the person is in.  Heredity biologically underlies development; the world draws on these attributes for their practical manifestation. Emphasizing the perception of this interaction allows psychologists to comprehend more ways in which people differ, and supports fully integrated genetic and environmental strategies in education, health, and therapy.

  • Stimulation

    Within the domain of psychology, the term stimulation denotes the process through which the senses, the mind, or the body gets activated by the reception of internal or external information, thereby encountering a change in perception, feeling, or behavior. External stimulation could include sights, sounds, or social interactions. Internal stimulation includes thoughts or feelings. For example, children in rich and varied environments with the presence of engaging play, music, or conversation tend to improve in their cognitive and social skills more readily than children in impoverished environments. Alternatively, sensory deprivation which is a form of lack of stimulation can negatively affect mental health.  Stimulation, particularly its intensity, is also significant. Too little stimulation can result in boredom, disengagement, and underperformance, while too much can lead to stress, anxiety, and sensory overload. Psychologists like Hebb reported that, in moderation, stimulation can aid in learning and alertness thereby determining the level of optimal stimulation necessary. In everyday life, varying degrees of stimulation can promote and enhance productivity, emotional health, creativity, or social relationships through physical exercises, tasks, or engaging in conversation.

  • Adulthood

    Psychology regards the start of adulthood as the period after adolescence and spanning the rest of life. While not solely based on age, adulthood must also be characterized by achieving specific milestones of development such as independence, stable interpersonal attachments, taking on occupational tasks, and the fulfillment of personal identity. Traditionally, adulthood is viewed as comprising three segments. Early adulthood, which spans the ages of 20 to 40, is characterized by career development, the formation of intimate relationships, and family life. Middle adulthood, which spans the ages of 40 to 60, is characterized by the simultaneous fulfillment of occupational and family responsibilities and the onset of physical and cognitive aging. Late adulthood, which begins at age 60, is characterized by retirement, life review, and health decline as well as the loss of significant others.  Psychologists such as Erik Erikson put great importance on middle adulthood as the time when the persons become psychosocially tasked with generatively and the physiologically responsible for decline. In more contemporary discussions, adulthood is characterized as a period of increasing cultural, social, and personal complexity. In more conservative cultures, adulthood is reached at the time of marriage, whereas in more permissive cultures, adulthood is reached and signified by a measure of financial independence.  The modern view proposes that identity, interpersonal relationships, and life purpose continue to develop within growing psychosocial complexity that spans a lifetime. 

  • Ethical-dilemma

    In psychology, an ethical dilemma occurs when a counselor, therapist, or a researcher, has to make a decision with two or more conflicting moral principles which makes it unclear to choose which decision to make. In a situation like this, adhering to one ethical principle means breaching another ethical principle and this creates an imbalance. An example of this could be a therapist facing a dilemma when a client tells a therapist something the client believes could be harmful to others. The therapist has to choose between the two conflicting ideas of trust where one has to keep their promise to maintain privacy and where the idea of privacy is compromised and others are kept safe. Ethics dilemmas revolve around a few core ideas and this could also be termed as spine of ethical dilemmas around which the whole situation revolves. Informed consent, dual relationships, and ethical dilemmas in research are the primary bones which other dilemmas are built around.